The Lifecycle of An Electric Vehicle(EV) Battery
The Electric Vehicle sector has been growing by leaps and bounds over the last decade with tremendous support from policymakers and industry stakeholders. The EVs are also being welcomed by people with open hands. All the countries all across the globe are aiming towards creating a sustainable transportation system. The main aim of the sustainable transportation system is to have Zero Greenhouse Gas Emissions in the transportation sector. There are over 11.2 million Electric Vehicles worldwide. The battery is an integral part of an electric vehicle. In this blog, I would be explaining the lifecycle of an electric vehicle battery.
What is an Electric Vehicle Battery?
Before understanding the lifecycle of an Electric Vehicle Battery, one must know the importance of an electric vehicle battery. An Electric Vehicle battery is also called a Traction Battery. It is used to power the electric motor of the Battery Electric Vehicle(BEV) or Hybrid Electric Vehicle(HEV). The batteries are designed with a kilowatt-hour or ampere-hour capacity for their application in the Electric Vehicle.
The desirable characteristics of an Electric Vehicle Battery are as follows:
- High Power to Weight Ratio
- High Specific Energy
- High Energy Density
- Small And Lighter Batteries To Improve Vehicular Performance
The most commonly used EV batteries are Lithium-ion and Lithium-polymer as they are low in weight and provide high energy. The other types of rechargeable batteries are Lead-Acid, Nickel-Cadmium, Nickel-Metal Hydride, Aluminium-Air, Zinc-Air and Sodium-Nickel Chloride.
The Lifecycle Of An Electric Vehicle Battery
Whenever you chose to buy an electric vehicle, you would tend to start taking a look at the specifications of the battery. Being at the consumer end, you must also know about the journey of your EV Battery from scratch.
The five stages in the lifecycle of an electric vehicle battery are as follows:
- Sourcing Raw Materials
- Battery Manufacturing
- Incorporation Into and Sale of Electric Vehicles
- Recharging of Electric Vehicles
- Battery Recycling
Now let’s understand the five stages in the lifecycle of an electric vehicle battery in detail.
Sourcing of Raw Materials
The first stage in the lifecycle of an electric vehicle battery starts at the source of the raw materials required for the battery. The Electric Vehicles batteries are rechargeable. Electric Vehicles predominantly use Lead-Acid, Nickel-Cadmium, Nickel-Metal Hydride, Aluminium-Air, Zinc-Air and Sodium-Nickel Chloride batteries.
EVs initially used Lead-Acid batteries and lead was a raw material required to develop this battery. Nowadays the majority of EVs use Lithium-Ion Batteries as compared to Lead-Acid Batteries, Nickel Metal and Ultracapacitors. Lithium-Ion Batteries are light in weight, long life, work at various temperatures, are energy-efficient and are inexpensive. Rare Earth Elements (REE) like lithium, nickel, cobalt or graphite is used in EV batteries. These Rare Earth Elements like Cobalt, Lithium and Graphite have to need to be mined from extremely large depths. The above-cited elements are used because of their ability to hold a lot of energy. Chile has been ranked as number one in the world in terms of Lithium reserves followed by Australia in second place. The Democratic Republic of Congo has been ranked number one in the world in terms of Covalt reserves. Lithium is either available in Hardrock form or as Brine. The two of the most commonly used methods to extract Lithium are as follows:
- Conventional Lithium Brine Extraction
- Hard Rock / Spodumene Lithium Extraction
According to the National Minerals Information Center report, there are enough worldwide reserves of Lithium for the next 185 years even if the EC market triples.
According to the Chinese Society of Rare Earths, to obtain 1 tonne of REE, 75 tonnes of acid waste is produced along with 1 tonne of nuclear waste.
To mine these materials like lithium and cobalt in Africa, the mining corporations use children as miners to get the ores of Lithium and Cobalt. There have been instances of slavery reported from these mines. Men, women and children work in these mines without any basic safety equipment. The Cobalt Laden Dust in these mines can cause fatal lung ailments.
The mining companies must follow sustainable methods of mining cobalt and lithium to reduce the impact on the environment. Cobalt and Lithium obtained from mines practising slavery and child labour must not be used by EV Battery manufacturers.
Battery Manufacturing
Now with the available raw materials, the battery pack for an electric vehicle is made. Lithium-Ion batteries are the most commonly used batteries in electric cars.
A cell is considered a basic element of a lithium-ion battery pack. It handles the discharging and charging of electric energy. It can be cylindrical type, pouch type, LTO cylindrical type and prismatic type. It consists of anode, cathode, electrolyte and separator. The cells of a Lithium-ion Battery(LIB) contains lithium (Li), cobalt (Co), and nickel (Ni) in the cathode, graphite in the anode, as well as aluminium and copper in other cell and pack components. All the battery cells are placed together by combining a fixed number of cells either in series or parallel configuration inside a frame to protect the cells from the effects of mechanical vibration, heat and sudden shocks. Various modules, control systems and protection systems are put together to create a battery pack.
The cell type matters while choosing the technology required to join cells to form a module. Ultrasonic welding and laser welding are some of the most feasible methods for joining cylindrical shaped and prismatic shaped cells to create modules. Laser welding and screw & bolt technique are some of the most feasible methods used for joining pouch-shaped cells to create modules. The EV battery pack is rated as per the energy requirement capacity ie kWh.
The EV Battery manufacturer will have to test the performance of the battery pack as per the industry standards before placing it into the electric vehicle. Automotive Test Standard LV 124 describes the most important standardized tests for energy storage devices in the automotive industry
Standard UN38.3 is based on the transport regulations for dangerous goods and describes the tests for classifying energy storage devices in dangerous goods classes.
The Hazard Levels of an EV Battery are measured as per the EUCAR (European Council for Automotive R&D) Norms.
The environmental impact of the manufacturing process depends on the type of energy used to execute the manufacturing process. Most Governments all across the globe would always want the industries to be set up away from the population and urban areas but this doesn’t help in protecting the environment. Apart from the weight of the REE, the energy used to produce the batteries are also responsible for nearly half of their environmental impact since most of this energy doesn’t come from low carbon sources.
Incorporation Into and Sale of Electric Vehicles
The size of the battery pack determines the size of an electric vehicle. The leading EV manufacturers would strive towards making a compact battery pack so that they can manufacture spacious electric cars and lightweight electric two-wheelers.
The battery pack is kept at an optimal distance from the motor so that there’s minimum wiring between the battery pack and the motor. A proper cooling system for the battery pack is ensured by the automobile designer.
After assembling all the components of the electric vehicle along with the battery pack, the EV is ready to be sold. The EV is priced as per the cost of the components. The EVs are designed to suit the customers need for aesthetic appeal along with ergonomic comfort. The battery pack is arguably the most expensive part of an EV and also the most dangerous part susceptible to explosions. Most of the EVs are put to sale online or at a showroom. In May 2019, the Financial Times Future of the Car Summit was held in London. From the summit, it was concluded that,
Key drivers for EV sales include: cost parity with ICE vehicles, improved battery power density, the roll-out of sufficient charging infrastructure, and a regulatory environment that incentivizes the take-up of EVs.
Recharging of Electric Vehicles
At this stage, the electric vehicle is used by a consumer. The only striking difference between an Internal Combustion Engine Automobile and an Electric Vehicle is the source of power. In the case of an EV, the battery powers the entire vehicle while petrol or diesel powers an Internal Combustion Engine Vehicle. The Battery Packs of an electric vehicle are designed to run for a fixed amount of distance when being fully charged and this is called the range of an electric vehicle. The EV manufacturers provide a warranty of 8 years or 100,000 miles for the battery pack. When these batteries run out of charge, the charging infrastructure is used to provide electrical energy from the grid to the battery pack.
The EV Battery pack works on DC power. The power grids generally work on AC Power. This AC Power needs to be converted to DC Power while using an AC Charging system. On the other hand, while using a DC Charging System(ie a charging station that may depend on non-conventional sources of energy) to charge the battery pack of an EV does not need any conversion system.
Battery Swapping is the process of exchanging a drained battery with a fully charged battery from the Battery Swapping Station(BSS). The BSS is a battery repository where several batteries are kept in charging and fully charged batteries are made available to EV users.
To know more about Battery Swapping Technology, read my blog titled “Battery Swapping Technology: Can Battery Swapping Technology Redefine India’s Landscape For EV Charging Infrastructure?”
We all know that there are no tailpipe(exhaust) gas emissions from an Electric Vehicle like that of an IC Engine Vehicle. Zero exhaust gas emissions from an EV does not make it purely environmental friendly. Well to Wheel emission determines the eco-friendliness of the electric vehicle. The greenhouse gas and air pollutants are emitted to produce and distribute the energy being used to power the car is considered as a part of the Well to Wheel Emission. Electricity production depends on the source of power. By considering a wheel to wheel emission, an EV on average emits about 4450 Pounds of Carbon Dioxide annually. A conventional internal combustion vehicle would emit nearly twice the amount of carbon dioxide emitted by an EV. After reading about the well-to-wheel emissions from an EV, you would feel that “Being Green” by driving an Electric Vehicle is more or less a cliché term. EVs can become a greener form of sustainable mobility systems if we start using renewable sources of energy would reduce Well to Wheel Emission totally to zero.
Battery Recycling
The EV manufacturers give a warranty of 8 to 10 years for the batteries. There has always been a concern about the future of these batteries after their warranty period. The last stage in the lifecycle of an EV battery is called Battery Recycling. It is a process of giving a new life for an old and worn-out battery.
Most IC Engine automobiles use a lead-acid battery and it can be recycled easily. The majority of the lead-acid batteries in the world are recycled. In the case of an electric vehicle, the worn-out lithium-ion battery can be recycled. Recycling a lithium-ion battery is not an easy task as it requires the dismantling of each lithium-ion cell. Lithium is extremely explosive material.
According to a study from the International Council Of Clean Transportation (ICCT),
In the US nearly 99% of the lead-acid batteries are recycled. This is not the same in the case of lithium-ion batteries that have a very specific mix of chemicals along with a very little amount of lithium. In the year 2011, only 5% of Lithium was extracted and the rest were incinerated.
The benefits of battery recycling are as follows:
- Recycled batteries can be used to make new products
- Recycling batteries can prevent heavy materials like mercury, lead and other harmful materials from entering into the landfills and contaminating the environment.
- Recycling batteries can help us conserve natural resources. For example, the lithium extracted from Lithium-Ion batteries can be restored and once again for another electric vehicle battery.
- Recycled batteries can be used as secondary storage batteries for renewable energy storage plants.
The steps involved in recycling a Lithium-ion battery are as follows:
- The worn-out or used battery packs are collected from the Electric Vehicle of the consumer.
- The battery pack is dismantled and shredded to the individual cell level.
- The electrolyte from the cell is obtained by using smelting the cell at a low temperature.
- Metals like Cobalt and Nickel from the cathode and anode of the cell can be extracted from the battery by the pyrometallurgy process and separated by the hydrometallurgy process. Lithium and Aluminium are available in the oxide states.
- The Carbon Black and Polyvinylidene Fluoride (PVDF) are discarded.
- A combination of mechanical and hydrometallurgical processes are used to restore lithium.
- The cathode is revitalized using suitable dopants.
- Finally, the battery is produced once again with the recycled materials. It is ready to use.
The global lithium-ion battery recycling market was about USD 1.5 billion in 2019 and it is expected to be valued at more than USD 12 billion by 2025.
Conclusion
At every stage in the lifecycle of an electric vehicle battery, there has always been some kind of negative impact on human beings and the environment. It's always important that there must be no negative impact on human beings and the environment due to the lifecycle of an electric vehicle battery. As a concluding remark, I would like to propose a set of feasible solutions which can be implemented to make sure that there is no negative impact on human beings and the environment due to the lifecycle of an electric vehicle battery. They are as follows:
- The EV Battery Manufacturers must not use the raw materials obtained from mines that involve unethical and illegal bonded labour, slavery and child labour.
- The miners working in Cobalt and Nickel mines must be provided with proper safety equipment like face masks, helmets, fire-resistant aprons and body shields.
- The EV Battery Manufacturing Plants must work using non-conventional(renewable) sources of energy and avoid fossil fuels.
- The EV Charging Stations must work on renewable sources of energy to make sure that the well to wheel emission is reduced to zero.
- Standard environmentally friendly protocols for recycling worn-out EV Batteries must be established by the automotive governing bodies and must be followed globally.
- The recycled EV batteries need not always be used to power an EV but they can also be used to support the electric grid of buildings and store energy from wind or solar electricity sources.
